as “deviant” or “immoral,” criminalizing practices that had been revered. In Angola, chibados were driven underground, their rituals suppressed as paganism that clashed with colonial Christianity. Portuguese accounts from the 17th century branded them as anomalies, erasing their sacred status and forcing many to conceal their identities. A recollection from a horrified Portuguese Jesuit published in 1625 described “certayne Chibadi, which are Men attyred like Women, and behave themselves womanly, ashamed to be called men; are also married to men, and esteeme that unnatural damnation an honor.” Similarly, British colonial laws in Nigeria, including the Criminal Code Act of 1916, outlawed “unnatural offenses,” targetingyan dauduand associating their femininity with vice. The Bori cult, once a vibrant tradition, was marginalized as superstition, pushingyandauduto the fringes of society. This imposition did not merely suppress chibados and yan daudu; it reshaped African worldviews. Colonial education and legal systems entrenched patriarchal binaries, marginalizing women and gender-diverse people alike. In West Africa, for example, colonial borders and the transatlantic slave trade exacerbated ethnic divisions, weakening communal structures that had supported fluid identities. Post-independence, many African nations retained these laws, blending them with rising religious conservatism—Islamic in the north, Christian in the south—to perpetuate stigma against LGBT people. The result was a legacy of erasure in which indigenous gender diversity was labeled “un-African,” despite historical evidence to the contrary. Yet the resilience of these gender-nonconforming groups endures. In the 21st century, activists are reclaiming these legacies, drawingonchibadoandyandaudutraditions to fuel contemporary LGBT movements. In Angola, the Associação Íris Angola, founded in 2013 and legally recognized in 2018, stands at the forefront. As the country’s primary LGBT organization, Íris advocates for rights through lobbying, HIV prevention efforts, and cultural events. In 2024, the group organized the first Miss Trans Angola pageant, celebrating trans visibility and echoingchibado fluidity. By 2025, this pageant had evolved into an annual gala, with the Miss Trans Angola 2025 event blending tradition with modern defiance. Íris also pushed for including sexual orientation in the national census, fostering data-driven advocacy. The organization’s work seeks to revive chibado spirits, and it has hosted festivals that recreate ancient rituals while addressing current issues such as healthcare discrimination. In Nigeria, yan daudu persist despite persecution under Sharia law in northern states, where same-sex acts can lead to severe penalties. In recent decades bothyandauduandkaruwai have been subject to periodic condemnation by political and religious figures, who’ve sometimes encouraged both police and civilians to abuse these already marginalized groups. But modern yan daudu like Aisha remain defiant, continuing to performing at weddings and markets, blending Bori traditions with activism. Organizations such as The Initiative for Equal Rights support safe spaces where yan daudu host youth gatherings, sharing stories of ancestral worth to combat stigma. This reclamation is part of a broader African movement in which activists invoke precolonial histories to challenge colonial-era laws. In countries such as South Africa and Botswana, decriminalization efforts cite indigenous gender diversity, inspiring similar pushes in Angola and Nigeria. These efforts extend beyond borders, informing global queer liberation. Twospirit identities in Africa parallel those of Indigenous people in the Americas, where colonization similarly disrupted the acceptance of fluid genders. By circling back to these roots—reclaiming, reinventing, and redefining—African activists contribute to a decolonial narrative. For instance, the term “twospirit” itself, coined in 1990 for Native American contexts, resonates in Africa as a tool for visibility, promoting community recognition amid fluidity. As Aisha’s words demonstrate, these figures remind the world that gender diversity is timeless, urging a future in which honoring the past can be a mechanism for dismantling lingering colonial chains. In reflecting on these traditions, one sees not isolation but interconnection. Chibados andyandaudu, once bridges between worlds, now link historical resilience to modern struggles. Their legacies challenge us to view queer histories as global tapestries in which African threads enrich the whole. As the continent evolves, embracing these two-spirit identities fosters true liberation—for Africa and beyond. November–December 2025 17 Queen Nzinga (1583-1663) of Ndongo & Matamba ruled as a man and kept 50chibados in her court. LESSONS IN DRAG A Queer Manual for Academics, Artists, and Aunties KAREEM KHUBCHANDANI with LaWhore Vagistan “Lessons in Dragis like the most virtuosic of drag performances: both erudite and wildly entertaining.” —Gayatri Gopinath, authorof Impossible Desires Paper $29.95 Distributed by the University of Chicago Press www.press.uchicago.edu FROM
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